𝐂𝐚𝐧 𝐚 𝐂𝐡𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐧 𝐃𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐤 𝐀𝐥𝐜𝐨𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐖𝐢𝐧𝐞? 𝐀 𝐁𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞

Can a Christian Drink Alcoholic Wine? A Biblical Perspective

An Exegetical and Theological Examination of Wine, Christian Liberty, Holiness, and Spiritual Responsibility

Abstract

The question of whether Christians may consume alcoholic beverages has remained a subject of theological discussion and disagreement throughout the history of the Church. While some interpret Scripture as prohibiting drunkenness but permitting moderate alcohol consumption, others advocate total abstinence as the most consistent expression of biblical holiness, self-control, and Christian responsibility. Much of this disagreement arises from differing interpretations of biblical terminology, particularly the Hebrew words yayin and tirosh and the Greek word oinos, as well as from the interpretation of significant passages such as John 2:1–11, Matthew 26:26–29, Ephesians 5:18, Romans 14:21, and 1 Timothy 5:23.

Drawing particularly upon the arguments developed by Samuele Bacchiocchi in Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages, this article examines the biblical teaching concerning alcoholic beverages through linguistic, historical, exegetical, and theological considerations. It investigates the apparent tension between positive and negative references to wine in Scripture, the example of Jesus, the apostolic emphasis on sobriety, and the relationship between Christian liberty and responsibility toward others. The article argues that although Scripture explicitly condemns drunkenness rather than providing an unambiguous universal prohibition of every possible consumption of alcoholic beverages, its cumulative teaching concerning holiness, self-control, spiritual vigilance, and love provides substantial grounds for Christians to embrace total abstinence as a wise and responsible expression of discipleship. Particular attention is given to the responsibility of pastors and spiritual leaders, whose conduct must exemplify the character and discipline expected of those entrusted with the care of God's people.

Keywords: Alcoholic wine, biblical wine, yayin, oinos, drunkenness, Christian liberty, holiness, abstinence, sobriety, Christian ethics.

1. Introduction: Beyond the Question of Permission

Few subjects generate as much disagreement among Christians as the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Within the Christian community, particularly among evangelical and Pentecostal traditions, some consider alcohol consumption incompatible with Christian holiness, while others maintain that Scripture condemns drunkenness rather than moderate drinking. These differing convictions frequently arise from contrasting interpretations of biblical passages, cultural traditions, and theological assumptions concerning Christian liberty.

Those who defend moderate consumption generally argue that the Bible does not prohibit drinking wine in itself but consistently condemns drunkenness and its destructive consequences. They appeal particularly to the wedding at Cana, where Jesus transformed water into wine (John 2:1–11), Paul's instruction to Timothy to use a little wine for his stomach (1 Tim. 5:23), and the positive references to wine as a blessing in the Old Testament (Ps. 104:14–15). From this perspective, moderate consumption is considered permissible provided that it does not lead to intoxication, addiction, or irresponsible behaviour.

Advocates of total abstinence, however, challenge the assumption that every biblical reference to wine necessarily describes an alcoholic beverage. They argue that biblical terminology encompasses different forms of grape products, including unfermented grape juice, and that positive references to wine should not automatically be interpreted as divine approval of intoxicating beverages. Furthermore, they emphasize the consistent biblical warnings against drunkenness, the importance of sobriety, and the Christian responsibility to avoid practices that may compromise spiritual discipline or harm others.

Samuele Bacchiocchi develops this latter position extensively in his book Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages. His study challenges conventional interpretations of biblical references to wine through an examination of Hebrew and Greek terminology, ancient methods of preserving grape products, the example of Jesus, and apostolic instructions. His central conclusion is that total abstinence represents the most faithful application of the biblical teaching concerning alcoholic beverages.

Nevertheless, an academically responsible examination must distinguish between what Scripture explicitly commands, what its terminology permits, and what theological conclusions are drawn from broader biblical principles. It would be inadequate to establish that drunkenness is condemned and conclude that every question concerning alcohol consumption has been settled. Equally, it would be insufficient to demonstrate that wine was consumed in ancient society and conclude that Christians therefore possess unrestricted permission to drink.

The more fundamental question is not simply whether a Christian can consume a certain quantity of alcohol without becoming intoxicated. It is how the biblical teaching concerning wine should shape the Christian understanding of holiness, freedom, self-control, spiritual responsibility, and love toward others.

2. Biblical Terminology and the Historical Understanding of Wine

A proper examination of the biblical teaching concerning wine must begin with the terminology employed in the original languages of Scripture. Modern readers frequently assume that the English word wine invariably refers to fermented alcoholic beverages. However, the ancient terminology and the production of grape products were more varied, requiring careful attention to context.

The Hebrew word yayin (יַיִן) is the common expression for wine in the Old Testament. It frequently refers to fermented wine, particularly in passages describing intoxication and its consequences. The word tirosh (תִּירוֹשׁ), commonly translated as new wine, often appears in contexts associated with agricultural prosperity and divine blessing (Deut. 7:13; Joel 2:19). Another expression, shekar (שֵׁכָר), generally translated as strong drink, refers to intoxicating beverages that could be produced from sources other than grapes. These terms demonstrate that biblical writers possessed a vocabulary for describing different grape products and intoxicating beverages. However, the existence of different expressions does not establish that yayin always means fermented wine or that tirosh invariably refers to unfermented grape juice. The meaning of each expression must be established through its literary and historical context.

The same caution applies to the Greek word oinos (οἶνος), generally translated as wine in the New Testament. It appears in passages describing the wedding at Cana (John 2:1–11), warnings against drunkenness (Eph. 5:18), Paul's instruction to Timothy (1 Tim. 5:23), and other contexts. The word itself does not invariably establish the fermentation status of the beverage. Its meaning must be determined by examining the immediate context and the historical circumstances surrounding its use.

Bacchiocchi rightly challenges the assumption that every positive reference to wine necessarily refers to an alcoholic beverage. Nevertheless, the opposite assumption—that every positive reference must mean unfermented grape juice—also requires evidence. Sound exegesis must resist the temptation to assign meanings to biblical words merely to support a predetermined theological position.

An important aspect of Bacchiocchi's investigation concerns the preservation of grape juice in the ancient world. One common objection to the possibility of unfermented grape juice being available in biblical times is the absence of modern refrigeration. Bacchiocchi addresses this objection by discussing ancient preservation methods, including boiling grape juice to produce concentrated syrup, filtering, cold storage, and other methods of preserving grape products. These historical practices demonstrate that ancient societies possessed ways of preserving grape products without necessarily allowing them to undergo fermentation. Therefore, unfermented grape preparations were not unknown in antiquity. However, demonstrating that such methods existed does not establish that every biblical reference to wine concerned unfermented juice. The historical evidence is significant because it challenges simplistic assumptions about ancient beverages, but it must not be used to make claims beyond what it can establish.

3. Wine in the Old Testament: Divine Provision, Human Responsibility, and the Danger of Intoxication

One of the apparent difficulties in interpreting the biblical teaching concerning wine is the presence of both positive and negative references. In some passages, wine appears alongside grain and oil as an expression of agricultural abundance and divine blessing, whereas in others it is associated with deception, loss of judgment, and moral destruction. These different descriptions must be understood within their respective theological and literary contexts.

Psalm 104:14–15 describes God's provision through the produce of the earth, including bread, oil, and wine, which gladdens the human heart. Similarly, Deuteronomy 7:13 associates grain, new wine, and oil with the blessings of the covenant. Genesis 27:28 and 49:10–12 also employ wine imagery in the context of blessing and agricultural prosperity. These passages celebrate God's generosity and the goodness of His provision. Bacchiocchi interprets such positive references as descriptions of unfermented grape products rather than intoxicating wine. Although this interpretation is possible in certain contexts, it is not necessary to conclude that every positive reference to wine must refer to unfermented grape juice. The essential theological principle is that the goodness of God's creation does not justify the misuse of its provisions. Something may be received as a gift within God's created order and yet become destructive when used without wisdom and self-control.

This distinction becomes especially clear in the wisdom literature. Proverbs 20:1 declares, "Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging: and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise." The passage personifies wine and strong drink as deceptive influences capable of undermining human judgment. The concern is not merely the physical effect of alcohol but the impairment of wisdom and the loss of responsible self-government. Proverbs 23:29–35 develops the warning through a vivid description of the sorrow, conflict, wounds, distorted perception, and repeated craving associated with excessive drinking. The person described in this passage continues to seek another drink even after experiencing its destructive consequences. Alcohol is therefore portrayed not simply as a beverage but as a potential instrument of enslavement and destruction.

The warning in Proverbs 31:4–5 is particularly relevant to those entrusted with authority. King Lemuel is instructed that it is not appropriate for kings and princes to indulge in wine and strong drink, lest they forget the law and pervert the judgment of the afflicted. The concern is the responsibility of leadership. Those who exercise authority must preserve sound judgment because their decisions affect the lives of others. Although the passage is not a universal prohibition addressed to every Israelite, it establishes a principle that carries considerable significance for Christian leadership: those entrusted with the welfare of others must demonstrate discipline, vigilance, and sound judgment.

The Old Testament also provides examples of abstinence associated with special consecration and responsibility. Numbers 6:1–4 describes the Nazarite vow, under which an individual voluntarily separated himself or herself to the Lord and abstained from wine, strong drink, and products of the vine. This abstinence was not limited to avoiding drunkenness; it was an expression of consecration. Similarly, Leviticus 10:8–11 records God's instruction to Aaron and his sons not to drink wine or strong drink when entering the Tent of Meeting, so that they might distinguish between the holy and the common and teach Israel God's statutes. These restrictions were associated with particular responsibilities and should not be transformed into a universal prohibition that the passages themselves do not establish. Nevertheless, they reveal an important biblical principle: special spiritual responsibilities demand disciplined conduct, and abstinence can be an appropriate expression of consecration to God.

Taken together, these Old Testament passages establish that wine cannot be discussed merely in terms of agricultural blessing or personal enjoyment. Scripture is deeply concerned with the moral consequences of its consumption, particularly when it compromises wisdom, judgment, responsibility, and spiritual discipline.

4. Jesus Christ and the Question of Alcoholic Wine

The example of Jesus Christ is central to any Christian discussion of alcohol because the conduct of believers must ultimately be evaluated in the light of His life and teaching. Several New Testament passages are frequently cited either to defend moderate consumption or to support abstinence. Each must be examined according to its immediate context and theological purpose.

The wedding at Cana (John 2:1–11) is perhaps the most frequently cited passage in defence of alcoholic wine. When the wine was exhausted, Jesus instructed the servants to fill six stone waterpots with water, which He subsequently transformed into wine. The master of the feast tasted it and remarked that the good wine had been kept until the end. Those who defend moderate drinking argue that Jesus produced alcoholic wine and thereby demonstrated that consuming wine was not inherently sinful. Bacchiocchi challenges this interpretation by observing that the Greek word oinos does not necessarily identify the beverage as fermented. He also questions the assumption that the description of the wine as good must refer to alcoholic strength or fermentation.

The important exegetical observation is that John does not explicitly identify the fermentation status of the wine. Consequently, the passage cannot establish conclusively that Jesus produced an intoxicating beverage. Equally, it would be difficult to demonstrate from the text alone that the wine was definitely unfermented. The central purpose of the account is theological rather than instructional concerning alcohol consumption. John identifies the miracle as the beginning of Jesus' signs, through which He manifested His glory and His disciples believed in Him (John 2:11). The passage therefore directs attention to the identity and glory of Christ rather than establishing a Christian drinking practice.

Another frequently cited passage is Matthew 11:18–19, where Jesus contrasts the ministry of John the Baptist with His own. John came neither eating nor drinking, and his lifestyle was criticised. Jesus came eating and drinking, and His opponents accused Him of being a glutton and a winebibber. This accusation is sometimes interpreted as evidence that Jesus consumed alcoholic beverages. However, the context demonstrates that Jesus was exposing the inconsistency and hypocrisy of His critics. They rejected John because of his ascetic lifestyle and rejected Jesus because of His association with ordinary people. Their accusations were intended to discredit both ministries. The description of Jesus as a drunkard is therefore a hostile accusation, not reliable testimony concerning His conduct. It is methodologically unsound to establish the drinking habits of Jesus through the accusations of His opponents.

The Last Supper provides another important point of discussion. In Matthew 26:26–29, Jesus takes the cup and identifies it with His covenant blood, subsequently referring to its contents as "this fruit of the vine." Bacchiocchi argues that this expression supports the use of unfermented grape juice rather than alcoholic wine. However, the expression itself does not establish the fermentation status of the beverage. The Passover setting, Jewish customs, and historical evidence must also be considered. What is beyond dispute is the theological significance of the cup: it represents the blood of the covenant and points to the sacrificial death of Christ. The Lord's Supper is not primarily an occasion for defending personal preferences concerning alcohol. It is the Church's sacred remembrance of Christ's sacrifice and its proclamation of His death until He comes (1 Cor. 11:26). Its observance must therefore be characterised by reverence, self-examination, unity, and spiritual discernment.

The accounts of Cana, the accusations against Jesus, and the Last Supper do not provide an unambiguous foundation for claiming that Jesus endorsed alcoholic consumption. Nevertheless, neither should they be forced to establish the opposite conclusion beyond what the texts explicitly reveal. The more responsible theological approach is to recognize the limitations of the evidence while examining the broader pattern of Jesus' teaching and the apostolic emphasis on holiness and self-control.

5. Apostolic Teaching: Sobriety, Self-Control, and Christian Character

The New Testament places considerable emphasis on the character of believers, particularly their responsibility to remain spiritually alert and exercise self-control. The apostolic teaching moves beyond the external question of drinking to address the deeper issue of what governs human conduct.

Ephesians 5:18 provides one of the clearest statements concerning alcohol: "And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess; but be filled with the Spirit." Paul establishes a direct contrast between drunkenness and the Spirit-filled life. The prohibition is explicit: believers must not surrender themselves to intoxication. The contrast is not merely between two different experiences but between two governing influences. Drunkenness represents the surrender of judgment and self-control to an intoxicating influence, whereas being filled with the Spirit describes a life increasingly governed by the presence and influence of God. The following verses describe the characteristics of the Spirit-filled community through mutual encouragement, thanksgiving, and submission in the fear of Christ (Eph. 5:19–21). Although the immediate command prohibits drunkenness rather than explicitly forbidding every possible consumption of wine, its theological implications extend to the broader responsibility of believers to live under the governing influence of the Holy Spirit.

The same emphasis appears in 1 Thessalonians 5:6–8, where Paul instructs believers to remain awake, watchful, and sober. He associates sobriety with faith, love, and the hope of salvation. Peter similarly commands believers to be sober and vigilant because their adversary, the devil, seeks opportunities to destroy them (1 Pet. 5:8). These passages demonstrate that Christian life requires spiritual alertness and disciplined conduct. Believers are not to surrender their moral judgment or become careless in their spiritual responsibilities.

The qualifications for church leadership provide an especially important dimension to this discussion. In 1 Timothy 3:2–3, an overseer must be sober-minded, self-controlled, respectable, and not given to drunkenness. Titus 1:7–8 similarly requires an overseer to be above reproach, not arrogant or quick-tempered, not given to drunkenness, but hospitable, self-controlled, upright, holy, and disciplined. The qualification of deacons in 1 Timothy 3:8 is expressed as a requirement that they must not be given to much wine. These expressions have generated discussion concerning whether moderate consumption is permitted. Nevertheless, the wider qualifications establish that Christian leadership demands a demonstrable pattern of discipline, sound judgment, and self-government. Leadership in the Church is not merely a matter of gifting, public ministry, or preaching ability; it requires a life that reflects the moral character of the gospel.

Paul's instruction to Timothy in 1 Timothy 5:23 also deserves careful examination. He writes, "Drink no longer water, but use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities." This passage is frequently cited as biblical permission for moderate alcohol consumption. Bacchiocchi examines the medicinal context and argues that the instruction should not be interpreted as a general endorsement of alcoholic beverages. The immediate context certainly indicates that Paul is addressing Timothy's physical condition rather than prescribing a general Christian practice. At the same time, the text does not explicitly identify the wine as unfermented grape juice or specify its alcoholic content. The most responsible interpretation recognizes the medicinal purpose of the instruction without transforming it into unrestricted permission for recreational drinking. A specific medicinal recommendation cannot automatically become a universal ethical principle.

The cumulative apostolic emphasis is therefore clear: Christians must cultivate sobriety, self-control, spiritual vigilance, and freedom from enslaving practices. Even where the immediate text does not establish universal abstinence, it provides a theological framework within which the consumption of intoxicating substances must be evaluated.

6. Christian Liberty, Love, and Freedom from Enslavement

The question of alcohol consumption cannot be settled entirely by examining individual passages concerning wine. It must also be considered within the wider New Testament teaching concerning Christian liberty and responsibility toward others. Romans 14 is particularly important because Paul addresses disagreements among believers concerning food and other matters of conscience. His central concern is that Christians must not use personal liberty to despise, judge, or spiritually damage one another.

Romans 14:21 declares, "It is good neither to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor any thing whereby thy brother stumbleth, or is offended, or is made weak." Paul explicitly includes wine in his discussion of Christian responsibility. His argument is not that every believer is universally prohibited from drinking wine, but that personal liberty must be governed by love. A Christian cannot defend a personal practice merely by claiming that Scripture does not explicitly prohibit it. The question must also be whether exercising that liberty damages another believer.

The same principle appears in 1 Corinthians 8:9, where Paul warns believers not to allow their liberty to become a stumbling block to the weak. His discussion of food offered to idols establishes a broader ethical principle: Christian freedom is never independent of responsibility toward others. The believer must be willing to surrender a personal preference when its exercise threatens the spiritual welfare of another person.

This principle has particular significance in societies where alcohol misuse has damaged families, relationships, and communities. In such circumstances, the Christian who exercises personal liberty without considering the struggles of others may demonstrate an inadequate understanding of Christian love. The issue is not whether another person's weakness should determine every aspect of Christian conduct, but whether believers are willing to subordinate their preferences to the spiritual welfare of others. Christian maturity is demonstrated not by the maximum exercise of personal freedom but by the willingness to exercise that freedom responsibly.

Paul's statement in 1 Corinthians 6:12 provides another important principle: "All things are lawful unto me, but all things are not expedient ... I will not be brought under the power of any." Whatever the precise relationship between Paul's words and the Corinthian slogan reflected in this passage, his qualification is unmistakable. Christian freedom must never become slavery to another influence. The principle is particularly relevant to substances capable of producing dependence and compromising self-control. Alcohol consumption may begin as a voluntary activity, but repeated use can develop into dependence, gradually diminishing the freedom that the individual initially believed he possessed. The believer must therefore examine not merely whether a practice is technically permissible but whether it risks bringing him under its power.

Galatians 5:13 reinforces this understanding by warning Christians not to use their freedom as an opportunity for the flesh but to serve one another through love. Christian liberty is not unrestricted personal autonomy. It is freedom from the dominion of sin so that believers may serve God and others faithfully. Consequently, the argument for moderate consumption cannot be separated from the responsibility to preserve self-control, protect others, and maintain a life consistent with the transforming power of the gospel.

7. Christian Witness, Holiness, and the Case for Abstinence

The discussion must finally move beyond individual ethics to the Church's responsibility as a witness in the world. Alcohol misuse is not merely a private matter. Its consequences frequently extend into family relationships, physical health, economic stability, domestic violence, road safety, and the wider well-being of communities. The Church cannot ignore these realities while discussing the subject exclusively in terms of personal permission.

Romans 12:1–2 calls believers to present their bodies as living sacrifices, holy and acceptable to God, and not to conform to the pattern of this world. Christian conduct must reflect the transforming work of the gospel. The body is not an instrument for unrestricted personal gratification but belongs to God and must be presented in His service. First Corinthians 10:31 provides a governing principle for every area of life: "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." The question is not merely whether an activity can be defended through an isolated biblical passage but whether it contributes to a life that honours God.

The Christian witness is also shaped by the example believers present to a watching world. Philippians 2:15 calls God's people to live as blameless and innocent children of God in a crooked and perverse generation, shining as lights in the world. In a society where alcohol misuse causes significant suffering, Christian abstinence can become a meaningful expression of compassion, solidarity, and responsible witness. It communicates that Christian identity is not defined by the maximum exercise of personal liberty but by the transforming influence of the gospel.

At this point, an important theological distinction must be maintained. Scripture unequivocally condemns drunkenness, warns against the deceptive influence of intoxicating beverages, and requires spiritual leaders to demonstrate exemplary discipline. Whether Scripture explicitly prohibits every possible consumption of alcoholic wine, however, remains a separate exegetical question. Bacchiocchi argues that the biblical evidence, properly understood, supports total abstinence. His linguistic, historical, and theological arguments deserve serious consideration, particularly his challenge to the assumption that all biblical references to wine necessarily describe fermented beverages. Nevertheless, the case for abstinence should not depend upon claiming that every positive reference to wine means unfermented grape juice. Such a claim goes beyond what can be established in every passage.

A more comprehensive theological case for abstinence emerges from the cumulative teaching of Scripture. The call to holiness (1 Pet. 1:15–16), the fruit of self-control produced by the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23), the requirement of spiritual vigilance (1 Thess. 5:6–8; 1 Pet. 5:8), freedom from enslavement (1 Cor. 6:12), responsibility toward weaker believers (Rom. 14:13–21; 1 Cor. 8:9–13), and the obligation to glorify God in every aspect of life (1 Cor. 10:31) together provide substantial grounds for embracing abstinence as a Christian conviction.

This distinction is particularly important in the life of the Church. Teaching abstinence as a wise, responsible, and spiritually beneficial Christian practice is not identical to claiming that every possible consumption of alcohol is explicitly prohibited by a universal biblical command. The Church must uphold the ethical implications of Scripture without binding the consciences of believers beyond the authority of God's Word. At the same time, Christian freedom must never become an excuse for disregarding the broader responsibilities of discipleship.

8. Conclusion: The Measure of Christian Maturity

The biblical discussion of alcoholic wine cannot be reduced to the question of whether a Christian may consume a particular quantity without becoming intoxicated. Such an approach risks reducing Christian ethics to the search for the boundary between what is technically permissible and what is sinful. The more fundamental concern of Scripture is the formation of a people whose lives reflect the holiness, wisdom, self-control, and love of Jesus Christ.

The Old Testament repeatedly warns against the deceptive and destructive influence of intoxicating beverages. The examples of the Nazarites and the restrictions placed upon priests demonstrate that abstinence can function as an expression of consecration and responsibility. The accounts of Jesus do not provide an unambiguous example of His endorsing alcoholic consumption, while the apostolic writings consistently emphasize sobriety, spiritual vigilance, self-control, and freedom from enslavement. The New Testament also makes clear that Christian liberty must be governed by love and responsibility toward others.

Although Scripture explicitly condemns drunkenness rather than stating an unambiguous universal prohibition of every possible consumption of alcohol, its broader ethical teaching provides compelling reasons for believers to consider abstinence seriously. This is particularly relevant for pastors, elders, teachers, and those whose conduct influences the spiritual lives of others. Their calling demands more than the avoidance of obvious wrongdoing; it requires a life that demonstrates exemplary discipline, sound judgment, and spiritual maturity.

Therefore, abstinence should not be presented merely as a denominational regulation or cultural tradition. It can be embraced as a deliberate expression of Christian discipline, concern for others, and commitment to a life that glorifies God. The Christian's primary concern should not be how much personal freedom can be exercised without violating a narrowly defined prohibition, but how every aspect of life can be brought under the lordship of Christ.

A believer may ask, "Is drinking alcohol necessarily a sin?" Yet a more searching question is, "Does my decision demonstrate the holiness, self-control, love, and spiritual responsibility that should characterize a disciple of Jesus Christ?" The gospel does not call believers merely to avoid certain sins; it calls them to become a transformed people whose conduct reflects the character of their Lord.

Ultimately, the measure of Christian maturity is not the extent of one's personal liberty but the degree to which that liberty is surrendered to the lordship of Christ and the service of others.

Bibliography

Bacchiocchi, Samuele. Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages. Berrien Springs, MI: Biblical Perspectives, 1989.

Bruce, F. F. The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984.

Carson, D. A., ed. Worship by the Book. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

Edwards, Griffith. Alcohol: The World's Favourite Drug. London: Penguin Books, 2002.

Fitzsimmonds, F. S. "Wine and Strong Drink." In The New Bible Dictionary. Edited by J. D. Douglas. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996.

France, R. T. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007.

Mounce, William D. Pastoral Epistles. Word Biblical Commentary 46. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000.

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Primary biblical references: Genesis 9:20–27; Numbers 6:1–4; Leviticus 10:8–11; Deuteronomy 7:13; Proverbs 20:1; 23:29–35; 31:4–5; Psalm 104:14–15; John 2:1–11; Matthew 11:18–19; 26:26–29; Romans 12:1–2; 14:13–23; 1 Corinthians 6:12; 8:9–13; 10:31; Ephesians 5:18–21; Galatians 5:13, 22–23; Philippians 2:15; 1 Thessalonians 5:6–8; 1 Timothy 3:2–8; 5:23; Titus 1:7–8; 1 Peter 1:15–16; 5:8.